Gulper sharks on a makeshift table at a landing site in Bosaso. (Photos: Supplied by the authors) 
The primary landing site for fishing boats in Bosaso, northeast Somalia, is a beehive of activity from 3am to 9am every day. Traders, fishermen, food sellers and Puntland government officials haggle, shout and exchange pleasantries over the night’s catch. They work amid dilapidated fish-processing facilities wedged between makeshift food joints and open fish markets.
All varieties of fish and crustaceans are available here but the small gulper sharks are the main attraction. While a scribe notes the volume caught, a young man slices the sharks on a large table, extracting the maws and placing the livers in plastic buckets. “Business looks good,” he tells ENACT organised crime project researchers.
Gulper shark liver oil is at the centre of an emerging illegal enterprise in Somalia’s semi-autonomous region of Puntland. TRAFFIC reports that it is highly prized for its squalene-rich liver oil, which is used for cosmetics, food supplements and pharmaceuticals, especially in Asian markets. The global shark liver oil market was valued at about $157.2-million in 2024 and is projected to reach $263.6-million by 2033.
Several of the species are categorised as vulnerable or endangered. Gulper sharks have slow development, late sexual maturity (16 years for females and 18 years for males) and low reproductive rates, generating only one pup per two-year gestation period. That makes them especially vulnerable to overfishing since their population cannot rapidly recover.
Researchers note that deepwater sharks are more vulnerable to overexploitation than most other marine vertebrates. Half the species targeted for the international liver oil trade are threatened with extinction, and there was a 97% drop in the Southern Indian Ocean gulper shark population between 2015 and 2020, according to TRAFFIC data.
In August 2024, Puntland’s government banned gulper shark fishing and introduced several new measures to strengthen its maritime governance. However, consistently weak enforcement capacity enables a flourishing trade in the prized oil. Though no official statistics exist, local fishermen note that the volume of gulper shark catches is declining.
ENACT research in Bargaal, Qandala and Bosaso in Puntland confirms this worrying trend in the Gulf of Aden. Interviewees said illicit trade in gulper shark oil has attracted highly placed government actors, local clan elders, businessmen and fishers involved in catching, processing and exporting.
Despite the bans, shark fishing and liver oil processing persist. The organs are sold to a small circle of buyers operating from Bosaso. Regardless of size, each organ goes for roughly $1. Buyers extract the oil in makeshift processing plants using rudimentary and unregulated methods without oversight, environmental controls or permits.
A plant operator explains how the livers are processed: “We mince the liver, heating it to between 70°C and 100°C, then add alkaline solutions to control pH levels.” The oil is distilled and filtered using intricate centrifugal techniques, removing any contaminants to produce the liver oil high in squalene.
In Bosaso, small teams connected to exporters or brokers monitor oil quality and prepare for its transportation. The absence of regulated processing compromises product quality and leads to environmental and health hazards, including from dumping waste that contains harmful compounds.
The cost of shark liver oil in Somalia varies from $14.44 to $38.50 per kilogram, with the end-buyer paying significantly more in foreign markets. The oil is illegally loaded onto foreign vessels at sea to avoid detection, bypassing Puntland ports, landing sites or legal export channels. Shipments are hidden under authorised cargo or passed via middlemen to conceal their source.
These covert methods suggest the existence of a shadow supply chain, operating beyond the reach of authorities and fuelling demand in overseas markets, primarily China and the Gulf region, respondents told ENACT.
TRAFFIC Fisheries Trade programme leader Glenn Sant and senior programme coordinator Markus Burgener note the many knowledge gaps in gulper shark overexploitation. These include the scale of the global oil trade, the sourcing and capacities of various oil processing countries and the quality of the oil in circulation. The lack of distinct codes for gulper shark oil makes it impossible to know how much oil is graded or exported.
However, Sant says a CITES proposal is currently being discussed, which could see gulper sharks listed as endangered in December 2025. Once that happens, countries must issue official licences to vessels to fish the gulper shark legally and sustainably.
Countries that allow illegal fishing of the species in their waters risk having their products banned globally. They would need to ensure the traceability of their gulper shark products to legal and sustainable fishing practices.
While Puntland’s bans have proven unsuccessful, they provide a necessary first step in preventing and taking action against the illicit trade. Harmonising legal regulations on gulper shark fishing and oil processing should also be agreed on at Somalia’s federal and member state levels.
Equally important is gathering accurate data on gulper shark refuge habitats, and establishing a comprehensive management strategy for the species. Implementing a marine monitoring and surveillance system has shown success in combating illegal, unreported and unregulated fishing. Indonesia was the first country to publicly share its vessel monitoring system by partnering with Global Fishing Watch. This allows for more transparent commercial fishing data and fisheries management.
Increased investment in marine surveillance and law enforcement capacity, including by partnering with international bodies such as the Food and Agriculture Organization, UN Office on Drugs and Crime and European Union could enable Somalia to identify and discourage illegal fishing operations. DM
Halkano Wario, East Africa Regional Organised Crime Observatory, ENACT, Institute for Security Studies (ISS) Nairobi; Abdullahi Said Jimale, marine biologist and independent researcher; and Samira Aden Abdi, research officer, ENACT, ISS Nairobi.
ENACT is funded by the European Union and implemented by the Institute for Security Studies in partnership with Interpol and the Global Initiative against Transnational Organized Crime.
First published by ISS Today.